Enver Hoxha: A Biographical Sketch [1]
Early Life and Education
Albania was a semi-feudal agricultural land, which proclaimed independence from a five-century domination by the Ottoman Empire in 1912. This independence was led by the landlord and bourgeois class, represented by Fan Noli – but was short-lived. For Western powers supported the installation by Serb and White guard reactionaries, of Ahmet Zog in 1924. Zog proclaimed himself king in 1928, and opened Albania’s doors to imperialism, and especially to Italian fascism. Enver Halil Hoxha was born on October 16, 1908 in the southern Albanian town of Gjirokastër (Gjirokastra) to Halil Hoxha and Gjylihan Çuçi. His father Halil was a Bektashi (Sunni) Muslim who belonged to the Tosk ethnographic group. Halil worked as a cloth merchant and traveled extensively throughout Europe and abroad.
Enver attended school in Gjirokastër and was first introduced to the “Manifesto of the Communist Party” while in high school. Through his studies in history, Enver’s early political thought was influenced by the Soviet Union’s October Revolution as well as the French Revolution. In 1930, Enver was awarded a state scholarship to the University of Montpellier in southeast France where he studied science. His identity as a communist was already formed. While at university, he attended events for the Association of Workers that were organized by the French Communist Party. He joined the Communist Party of France, and made contact with left-wing Albanian emigres. Hoxha later left Montpellier for Paris and studied philosophy at Sorbonne, including Marxist works. During his time in Paris, Enver contributed works to L’Humanité, which was then an organ of the French Communist Party (Parti communiste français, PCF). He worked ats Secretary to the Albanian Consul in Brussels, Belgium for a short time, eventually returning to Albania around 1936. He worked as a teacher in the French school at Gjirokastër and the capital city Tirana. Here he grew close to the communists in Korça (Korçë). Korca was where the first communist cell was established, in 1929.
Party Leadership and the Partisan Resistance
The forces of Fascist Italy invaded Albania on April 7, 1939 and installed a puppet government known as “the Albanian Kingdom.” In light of Enver’s activities in the Korce communist circles, he was dismissed from teaching jobs in 1939. He began working in a small shop while simultaneously engaging in underground anti-fascist efforts. At this point, he was sent by the Korca Communist Group to Tirana to help build the communist group there. Enver played a key role in uniting local communist groups into the united Communist Party. When the Communist Party of Albania (Partia Komuniste e Shqipërisë, PKSH) was founded in November 1941, Enver was selected as a member of the seven-person provisional Central Committee. On April 8, 1942, Hoxha delivered the main report of the PKSH, in which the fundamental tenets of the party were established. These tenets included: assessments regarding the situation within the PKSH; educational, political, and theoretical work; the importance of cadres; and inner-party discipline. Through his earliest work in the party, Hoxha established himself as an outstanding and perceptive leader. He emphasized discipline and security among the most important facets of the mounting struggle against fascism:
In every organization there must be some kind of discipline. But in our Communist Party, which is the vanguard of the working class there should exist that particular discipline which arises from the high consciousness of Communist Party members, the most highly conscious sons of the working class and the working people. The difficult conditions of illegal work demand even greater discipline from us. Without steel-like discipline and without the unity of our Communist Party, which has many powerful enemies, we cannot fight the war successfully.
It is mainly alien elements, introduced into our Party with the intention of destroying it from within, who breach our communist discipline; this discipline is also violated by various people who are not yet free of their petty bourgeois circle, that is, people who are not yet mature enough to become party members, or by various careerists. But if we have our eyes open, it is not difficult to detect these people.
“Report Delivered to the First Consultative Meeting of the Activists of the Communist Party of Albania,” (April 1942). Selected Works, vol. 1[2]
In the months that followed, Enver actively recruited and organized throughout Albania. In July 1942, he directly engaged Albania’s peasanty on behalf of the PKSH, urging rural toilers to resist the Italian occupiers and Albania’s puppet government. Hoxha identified the peasantry as a decisive force in the ultimate liberation of Albania from the yoke of fascism, urging peasants to engage in armed struggle against the enemy.
In this sacred war waged by the Albanian people to win lasting freedom you are the most important factor for our victory. The enemy knows that you are the living forces of the country, it knows that the unity of your forces with the entire Albanian people will mean a speedy and terrible death to fascism. This is precisely why the enemy and the traitors have exerted all their efforts to squeeze you dry, to rob you and leave you to die of starvation. Fascism is endeavouring to seize everything you possess, it has left you without oil, it is trying to take your wheat, maize, oil, wool and livestock…
To the devilry of the enemy, and to his oppression we should respond with guns; we should wage our war more and more fiercely, not allowing the enemy a moment’s respite to act with a free hand against our people. Every true Albanian should become conscious of his duty to our people. With pride and self-sacrifice, he should speed the day of the liberation of our homeland.
“Call to the Albanian Peasantry,” (July 1942). Selected Works, vol. 1[3]
On September 16, 1942, Albania’s National Liberation Movement was founded at the Conference of Pezë. The goal of this movement was to unify resistance to the forces of fascism throughout Albania. A great role was played by the newspaper Zeri I Populit (The People’s Voice), of which Enver Hoxha was the editor and principal contributer. Enver Hoxha was selected for the ten-person General Council of the National Liberation Movement, which included six other communists. His sustained involvement in anti-fascist activities resulted in a government charged for which Hoxha was tried in absentia and sentenced to death. Nevertheless, he continued clandestine political work in Tirana and in other parts of Albania. In March 1943, Hoxha was elected General Secretary of the PKSH at the party’s first National Conference. Through his influential position in the party, Hoxha sought to extend the role of women in the PKSH, calling for an anti-fascist “Women’s Union.”
In order to form this front, it is necessary to bring together the broad masses of women of every category and every social stratum. Conferences are the best way of bringing the women together, but these must not be academic meetings to talk about problems divorced from practical life; their getting together must arise from their actual needs — the demand for bread, protests against internments, protests against threats, executions, etc. These meetings and conferences should not deal only with high level politics, but should talk about the oppression of women, their needs, the hated enemy, fascism, and the need to fight it, and the tasks of the women in this liberation war…
… All the women from town and countryside who believe in the war against the enemy, women of every political tendency and trend … there must be no sectarianism in this matter…
“Circular on the Creation of the Albanian Anti-Fascist Women’s Union,” (April 1943). Selected Works, vol. 1[4]
In the midst of organizing and leading the anti-fascist resistance, Enver met Nexhmije Xhuglini. Nexhmije herself played an important role in the struggle, as she was elected to the General Council of the Albanian National Liberation Movement and served in the 1st Division of the National Liberation Army. Enver and Nexhmije married in 1945.
Enver Hoxha played an integral role in organizing partisan fighters into the Albanian National Liberation Army, which was founded in July 1943 with Hoxha serving as Commander-in-Chief. The ranks of partisan forces under Hoxha swelled to 70,000 strong. By now, of course, the Soviet Union had been invaded by the German fascists. Because the Soviet Army was involved against Axis forces in other arenas, Albanian forces were left to drive out Italian occupiers on their own. The Albanian partisans were successfully resisting the Italian invaders. Therefore, Nazi Germany entered Albania to support the faltering Italian forces. However they did not fare much better.
Although Albania then had a population of only one million, it made a valuable contribution to the cause to defeat fascism. It pinned down 15 Italian and German divisions, putting out of action 70,000 enemies killed, wounded and taken prisoner. 700,000 fascist troops trampled the 28,000 square kilometers which is the total area of Albania. For every square kilometer, one freedom fighter gave his life. Whole districts and cities were razed to the ground. The economy of the country was totally devastated.
On the eve of liberation, the Albanian National Army had in its ranks 70,000 partisans incorporated in three army corps (six divisions).An Outline of the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania (1978).[5] Albania was liberated by partisan forces On November 17, 1944. While their nation had been freed from the grip of its occupiers, some Albanian partisans continued the fight against fascism, assisting in the liberation of portions of Yugoslavia despite growing differences with the leadership and the political course of Josip Tito.
In anticipation of the eventual liberation of Albania, Albanian communist leaders had gathered in May 1944 at the Congress of Përmet, Albania several months prior to the liberation of Albania to establish a framework for a post-war government. Hoxha was named President of the National Anti-Fascist Committee of Liberation and Commander-in-Chief of the Army. Several months later, Hoxha was named interim Prime Minister of the Democratic Government of Albania.
Governing the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania
In early 1946, Albania’s Constituent Assembly moved to abolish the country’s decades-old monarchy and established the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania. In the months that followed, two regional matters evolved as significant challenges to the newly-founded republic: territorial claims by Greek monarcho-fascists and increasing efforts by Yugoslavia’s Tito to exert control over Albanian territory and affairs.
Enver Hoxha publicly addressed tensions with Greece at the Plenary Session of the Paris Peace Conference in August 1946, challenging a mounting trend of “Greek imperialist expansion over the entire Balkan region”. However Hoxha drew a clear line of demarcation between the Greek people and the country’s clique of monarcho-fascists.
On the question of whether Albania is an allied country and whether it has fully deserved this title, [Greek delegate] Mr. Tsaldaris has our reply in the words I have just spoken. The Albanian people contemptuously reject the vile accusations of the Greek delegate, who labels my country an aggressor. The Albanian people have never attacked the honest Greek people and have never declared war on them. On the contrary, they sympathized with their cause, which was also the cause of the Albanian people, since both nations had suffered the same fate and had to deal with the same enemy.
“Speech Delivered at the Plenary Session of the Paris Peace Conference” (August 1946).[6]
At the same plenary session, Hoxha asserted Albania’s willingness to make peace with the defeated nation of Italy; while also demanding reparations for the toll inflicted upon the Albanian people as a result of Italy’s invasion and occupation of Albania. Through treaties resulting from the Paris Peace Conference, Italy recognized Albania’s independence and made a partial payment of war reparations.
Five meetings
The following year, Enver Hoxha met with Joseph Stalin in Moscow, in the first of five meetings… During the course of their discussions, Hoxha briefed Stalin on the concerns he articulated during the Paris Peace Conference vis-à-vis the Greek situation as well as the escalations civil war in Greece. Stalin expressed support for the positions articulated by Hoxha, while noting that the ongoing intervention of British and American forces in the Balkans demonstrated a critical need for ongoing vigilance and unity between the Albanian and Soviet people.
Initially, Albania and Yugoslavia cooperated via economic endeavors in the years immediately following World War II. However, relations soured between the countries in late 1948 when it became clear that Yugoslavia was intent on annexing the entire nation of Albania as a new Yugoslav republic. The same year, Yugoslavia was expelled from the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform), placing further strain upon relations between Albania and Tito’s Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia ultimately split with the USSR in mid-1948, prompting Albania to break ties with Yugoslavia.
In 1950, Albania foiled a slipshod plot formulated by expatriates and British and American intelligence agents to overthrow the legitimate government of the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania. Trained in Malta and guided by a radio base on the Greek island of Corfu, the group of infiltrators met an almost immediate demise upon landing in Albania. As noted in accounts published by Bill Bland and Ian Price in 1984, (William B.Bland and and Ian Price, “A Tangled Web. A History of Anglo-American relations with Albania (1912-1955”; London 1986; at: https://archive.org/details/ATangledWeb/page/n1) most of the would-be invaders were killed or captured immediately with the exception of a few who escaped to Greece. Enver Hoxha reflected on the half-baked invasion plot in his work “The Anglo-American Threat to Albania”:
The imperialists had pinned all their hopes on these degenerate elements who, with a dagger in one hand and gold in the other, tried to intimidate our people or bribe them into becoming their followers… Those who tried to bite Albania left not only their teeth, but their bones in this sacred land.
The Anglo-American Threat to Albania (1975).[7]
Following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953, Enver Hoxha led the people of Albania in expressing the country’s deep grief and sorrow. At the Seventh Plenum of the Central Committee of the Albanian Party of Labor, Hoxha eulogized the fallen leader of the international communist movement in his opening remarks.
This is the first Plenum of our Central Committee after the death of the great Stalin. Stalin, who taught and educated us, lives no more, but the magnificent ideas, the cause and deed of Stalin live and will live through centuries. Loyal to the end to Marxism-Leninism, our Party will be constantly led in its work by the teachings of Stalin and will always score victories on its road.
I invite you, comrades, to stand up to honor the memory of Stalin, our great teacher and leader.
“On the State of the Party’s organizational and Political Work and the measures to Strengthen It,” May 11, 1953
But Hoxha’s vigorous defense of the legacy of Joseph Stalin transcended matters of tradition and commemoration. When Khrushchev launched his campaign to defile and destroy the memory and achievements of Stalin through his infamous “Secret Speech” at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956, Enver Hoxha repudiated the Soviet Union’s embrace of revisionism. Khrushchev made a series of halfhearted overtures to maintain amenable relations between the USSR and Albania, but he simultaneously applied pressure for the Albanian people to follow the path of Khrushchevite “de-Stalinization”. Enver Hoxha rejected this, most explicitly so in his comments at the Meeting of 81 Communist and Workers’ Parties in 1960. Hoxha’s rejoinder to the mounting trend of revisionism was both politically astute while devoid of dogma and hagiography, acknowledging Stalin’s faults while recognizing Stalin’s lessons and achievements.
Did Stalin make mistakes? Of course he did. In so long a period filled with heroism, trials, struggle, triumphs, it is inevitable not only for Joseph Stalin personally but also for the leadership as a collective body to make mistakes. Which is the party and who is the leader that can claim to have made no mistakes in their work? When the existing leadership of the Soviet Union is criticized, the comrades of the Soviet leadership advise us to look ahead and let bygones be bygones, they tell us to avoid polemics, but when it comes to Stalin, they not only did not look ahead but they turned right round, completely backward, in order to track down only the weak spots in Stalin’s work.
“Reject the Revisionist Theses of the XX Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Anti-Marxist Stand of Khrushchev’s Group! Uphold Marxism-Leninism!” (November 16, 1960)
The following year, relations continued to deteriorate between Albania and the USSR. At the 22nd Congress of the Communist party of the Soviet Union, the USSR accused Albania of perpetuating the so-called “cult of the individual” and of pursuing an “anti-Leninist course.” Khrushchev also exacerbated tensions with Albania by advocating for the posthumous rehabilitation of Albanian criminal and traitor Koçi Xoxe and by attempting to force Albania into rapprochement with Yugoslavia.
The public display of vitriol between Albania and the USSR entered an overtly hostile phase the same year, as the USSR cut off economic aid to Albania as well as military support. Khrushchev also compelled the nations of Eastern Europe to sever ties with Albania.
Although the steadfastly anti-revisionist position of the Albanian people effectively led to both isolation and economic hardships, inflicted by the nations and parties influenced by Khrushchevite revisionism, Albania maintained cordial relations with the People’s Republic of China. That is until the dawn of The Great Proletarian Revolution in China, which Enver Hoxha regarded as a “serious problem.” He approached the matter with great concern at the 18th Plenum of the Central Committee of the Albanian Party of Labor, providing a Marxist-Leninist critique of the political climate in China. Hoxha was especially critical of the brazen, unchecked exploits of the Red Guards, and an evolving “cult of Mao.” As with the split between the USSR and Albania, the ensuing split between China and Albania was a consequence of Albania’s strict adherence to the correct principles of Marxism-Leninism. Moreover, Enver Hoxha reminded the people of Albania and communists of the world that the issues at hand were with the USSR and their ruling cliques and not with the people of the USSR and Albania.
Our propaganda against China, its successes in all fields, including culture and the works of Mao, etc., should be carried out within correct norms, as hitherto, and any undue demand on the part of the Chinese comrades should be tactfully avoided. Concessions and sectarianism should be avoided because neither the one nor the other serves our great cause which it is our duty to strengthen on the correct Marxist-Leninist road for the benefit of communism.
“Some Preliminary Ideas about the Chinese Proletarian Cultural Revolution” (October 1966).[8]
The concerns and critiques of Enver Hoxha towards the leadership of the People’s Republic of China were resoundingly affirmed in the years that followed, first by the normalization of relations between the United States and China and later by the ascendency of capitalist Deng Xiaoping to his paramount position as de facto leader of the nation.
Later Theoretical Activity
Enver was specifically and consistently concerned with encouraging communists around the world to learn from the mistakes of the Soviet Union. Through key works including Eurocommunism Is Anti-Communism (1980), he explained that the path of the revisionist USSR was decidedly contrary to Marxism-Leninism.
If a party permits illusions to be created in its ranks, for example, that «irrespective of the Khrushchevite ideology, socialism is being built in the Soviet Union», that there are «bureaucrats» in the leadership of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union but there are «revolutionaries and Marxist-Leninists» as well, then willy-nilly such a party is no longer in a Marxist-Leninist position, but has deviated from the revolutionary strategy and tactics, and if not openly at least indirectly, has been transformed into a pro-Soviet party, irrespective of the fact that in words it might be against the theses of the
20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Khrushchevism. Revolutionary experience has proved that you cannot fight against Khrushchevism if you do not also fight against the chauvinist and social-imperialist hegemonic policy which the leaders of the present-day capitalist and imperialist Soviet Union, Brezhnev, Suslov, and company, follow.
Eurocommunism is Anti-Communism (1980).[9]
Hoxha remained dedicated to exposing actions of the allegedly “communist” ruling cliques of China and the USSR. He spoke and wrote extensively in opposition to the rise of capitalist-roader Deng Xiaoping and vehemently opposed the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1980.
A copious writer his entire life, Enver Hoxha was most prolific with regard to theoretical work beginning in the mid-1970s. During this time, Hoxha produced some of the most important Marxist-Leninist critiques of revisionism and imperialism, including the landmark work With Stalin (1979), which detailed his five meetings with Joseph Stalin from 1947 to 1951. Also published during this time was Eurocommunism is Anti-Communism, which decried the reinvention of Marxism as a reform-based movement. Enver Hoxha’s last major work was The Superpowers (1985), a political diary spanning 1959 to 1984.[i]
Passing
Enver Hoxha died on April 11, 1985 due to a heart condition called ventricular fibrillation. In his 1998 work, A Coming of Age: Albania Under Enver Hoxha, writer James S. O Donnell drew upon Hoxha’s own words in describing Hoxha’s achievements and impact:
The best way to put Albania’s development from 1944 to 1985 in perspective is to look at the following quotation from Enver Hoxha in which he was speaking to a group of people of Albanian nationality from several countries who were visiting Albania in 1969. The message of the speech is significant because it attempts to put Albanian achievements in their proper perspective; that is, the perspective of the necessity to assess achievement within Albanian parameters.
Enver Hoxha told the visitors:
The Albanian communists are ordinary people, prepared to make sacrifices. The enemies curse them, call them ‘barbarians,’ ‘criminals’ and all sorts of other epithets. They slander the communists in this way because they are men of the people who changed the face of that backward Albania which many of you remember very well from 30 to 40 years ago. How greatly this Albania of ours has changed! True, the time has been short and we do not boast about the progress we have made but the truth is that changes are great. You, in particular, understand these changes correctly, because you compare the situation with what it was before. Of course, you do not compare these things with the palaces which you see in the centre of Ankara, in the Champs-Elysees of Paris, or with the sky-scrapers of New York, which were not built in 25 years, but began to be built centuries ago with the sweat, blood and the sufferings of the working people for the benefit of the magnates, the wealthy, the millionaires. Looking at Albania from this correct angle, the differences within 25 years are like the difference of night from day.
…It is true that we received credits from the Soviet Union of the time of Stalin and from China for the projects we have built or are building, but you and the whole world must know that the valuable and necessary credit which has been given us is infinitesimal in comparison with the investments of billions of leks and the great economic strength which the Albanian people have created with their own toil and sweat.[10]
Among the most poignant of tributes to the fallen leader was the poem “Elegy for Enver Hoxha,” penned by the Albanian poet Dritëro Agolli, who wrote:
Forgive me, Enver, that I could not give you
the breath of life from my breast;
I would have plucked out my heart
and given it to you with joy.
Yet Enver did not die and is not dead;
he lives among the living;
he stands on the iron-crested mountains
and leads us still.
He says to us: Defend the Party,
founded by us in ‘forty-one;
I am among you and the generations still to come,
in mind, in spirit and in voice.[11]
Enver Hoxha was survived by his wife Nexhmije and his three children, Ilirl, Sokol, and Pranvera.
Important Accomplishments and Legacy
Enver Hoxha led the people of Albania for 41 years and during this time, accomplishing much for the people of Albania. Among his most significant victories was his leadership of the Albanian people against the forces of fascism, for it is because of this important victory that all other achievements were possible.
Under the leadership of Enver Hoxha, land was redistributed from wealthy landowners to farmers. By 1983, 99% of farmland in Albania was owned by agricultural production cooperatives and state farms.[12] Through this measure, agricultural production increased, allowing Albania to decrease its need for assistance from unreliable foreign governments.
Illiteracy in Albania was virtually eliminated during the Hoxha era. Education became a top priority in Albania as per the Constitution of the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania.
Article 32
The state carries out extensive ideological and cultural activity for the communist education of the working people, for the molding of the new man. The state takes special care of the all-round development and education of the younger generation in the spirit of socialism and communism.
Article 33
Education in the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania is organized and run by the state, is open to all and free of charge; it is built on the basis of the Marxist-Leninist world outlook and combines lessons with productive work and physical and military training.
Education follows the best traditions of the Albanian national secular school.[13]
Along with increased literacy and enrollment in schools, universities, and adult education courses, educational improvements also resulted in employment opportunities for instructors. By the 1980s, an estimated 40,000 teachers were employed in Albania.[14]
Vocational schools were opened to assist students in finding the best utilization of their skills and upon completion of such programs, students were provided with jobs they could keep for the rest of their lives. Adults were also encouraged to continue their education by attending “night schools.”
Gender equality was a top priority for the Albanian people during the period of Enver Hoxha’s leadership. Women achieved voting rights in 1945 and the first Albanian women were elected to positions of leadership the same year. Women’s rights were also codified in Albania’s constitution.
Article 41
The woman, liberated from political oppression and economic exploitation, as a great force of the revolution, takes an active part in the socialist construction of the country and the defense of the homeland.
The woman enjoys equal rights with man in work, pay, holidays, social security, education, in all social-political activity, as well as in the family.[15]
Enver Hoxha famously underscored the importance of equal rights in one of many treatises on the progresses made with respect to gender equality in Albania:
The entire party and country should hurl into the fire and break the neck of anyone who dared trample underfoot the sacred edict of the party on the defense of women’s rights.[16]
Although the forces of imperialism wrested power away from the people of Albania in 1992, Enver Hoxha is still revered in the hearts and minds of Albanians today. Moreover, his achievements and contributions serve as an inspiration to people all around the world who seek a better future for humanity.
Mike B.
August 2019
References
[1] In addition to the materials cited throughout the text, we acknowledge the biography provided at enverhoxha.info as a general source for the present document. The full text, entitled “Enver Hoxha Biography” is available via this link: http://www.enverhoxha.info/english/biography.php
[2] Full text available at: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/ebooks/sw/vol1.pdf
[3] Ibid.
[4] ibid.
[5] An Outline of the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania. Tirana: 8 Nentori Publishing House, 1978.
[6] Full text available at: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/1946/08/21.htm
[7] Full text available at: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/ebooks/the_anglo-american_threat_to_albania.pdf
[8] Full text available at: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/1966/10/01.htm
[9] Full text available at: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/euroco/env2-1.htm
[10] O’Donnell, James S. A Coming of Age: Albania Under Enver Hoxha. Boulder: East European Monographs, 1999. Full text available at: https://espressostalinist.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/a-coming-of-age.pdf
[11] Quoted by Bill Bland in “Enver Hoxha As Statesman,” (1985). Full text at: https://www.marxists.org/archive/bland/1985/x01/x01.htm
[12] Cungu, Azeta and Johann F.M. Swinnen. Albania’s Radical Agrarian Reform. Policy Research Group Working Paper No. 15. Leuven: Policy Research Group, 1998. Full text available at: https://tinyurl.com/albania-agrarian
[13] Full text available at: https://tinyurl.com/albania-cons
[14] Zickel, Raymond and Walter R. Iwaskiw, editors. Albania: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1994. Full text at: http://countrystudies.us/albania/59.htm.
[15] See above.
[16] As quoted by Anton Logoreci in The Albanians: Europe’s Forgotten Survivors. Boulder: Westview Press, 1977. p. 158.
Additional Sources
Bici, Rozeta, “Education and Employment in Communist Albania.” Elbasan, Biblioteca Judeţeană Mureş, 2008. Full text at: http://www.diacronia.ro/ro/indexing/details/A19404/pdf
Bland, William and Norberto Steinmayer, “In Defense of Enver Hoxha” 1993. Full text at: https://espressostalinist.com/2013/08/14/bill-bland-norberto-steinmayr-in-defence-of-enver-hoxha/
The History of the Socialist Construction of Albania (1945-1975). Tirana: The Academy of Sciences of the PSR of Albania; The Institute of History, 1988.
Full text at: https://archive.org/details/TheHistoryOfTheSocialistConstructionOfAlbania
“Hoxha, Enver” (biographical entry). Full text at: https://www.marxists.org/glossary/people/h/o.htm#hoxha-enver
The Road to Communism: Documents of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, October 17-31, 1961. Foreign languages Publishing House, 1962.
Full text available at: https://archive.org/details/RoadToCommunism22ndCongressCPSU